By Stella Thompson
Spring 2025
Introduction
Hawaii was originally settled around 300 CE by people from nearby Pacific Islands, including Marquesas and Tahiti (Encyclopædia Britannica 2025). After contact with the West in the late 18th century, the archipelago was consolidated from various chief-led tribes into a united kingdom ruled by a single monarch, King Kamehameha (Encyclopædia Britannica 2025). This system of governance persisted for decades. In 1959, Hawaii became the fiftieth state in the United States of America. But, how did Hawaii go from a sovereign kingdom to a territory of the U.S.? And how can we include Native Hawaiian voices in this history?
Hawaiian Economy and Sugar Cane
U.S. interest in the Kingdom of Hawaii began in the 1820s as missionaries visited with intentions of converting its inhabitants to Christianity (Miller 2025). After discovering that the land was ideal for growing sugar cane, there was a boom in commercial sugar cane plantations on the islands. The sugar cane industry became increasingly powerful, both politically and economically, and, by the 1870s, had significantly weakened the power of the Hawaiian monarchy (Miller 2025). In 1875, the U.S. and Hawaii signed a reciprocity agreement that made the Hawaiian economy deeply intertwined with the U.S., as Hawaii agreed to only sell its sugar to the U.S. (Miller 2025).
American Business Interests in Hawaii
At this point, American business interests in Hawaii were concerned about keeping their money and power, so they took measures to ensure their control and further weaken the monarchy. In 1888, the Hawaiian constitution was adjusted to give American citizens living in Hawaii voting rights and limit the power of the monarchy (Miller 2025). Hawaiian independence was further threatened when the U.S. eliminated their reciprocal sugar relationship, which damaged Hawaii economically (Miller 2025). A change in power occurred in 1891 as King David Kalakaua died and his sister, Queen Lili’uokalani, took his place. She looked to reduce Hawaiian dependence on the U.S. and therefore was seen as a threat to sugar cane business interests.
The Overthrow of the Queen
The businessmen in Hawaii, mostly Americans tied to the sugar cane industry, immediately acted to prevent the Queen from undermining their economic interests. In 1893, they attempted to overthrow Queen Lili’uokalani and establish a provisional government with the help of the U.S. government (HawaiianVoice 2013). John Stevens, the U.S. minister to Hawaii, landed a Navy ship in Hawaii to inspire fear, causing the Queen to abdicate her throne. They then set up a provisional government with Stanford Dole, an American and the son of missionaries, as the president (HawaiianVoice 2013). Although President Grover Cleveland ultimately did not approve their request for annexation, this prompted a broader debate in American society about the annexation of Hawaii and jolted Native Hawaiians to organize and express their concerns.
Reactions to Potential Annexation
The overthrow of 1893 triggered the formation of the Hawaiian Patriotic League, which had both a women’s and men’s branch (Silva 2004, 131). The mission of the league was “to preserve and maintain, by all legal and peaceful means and measures, the independent autonomy of the islands of Hawaii” (Silva 2004, 131). In addition to organizing, some Native Hawaiians withheld donations from their churches if they supported the provisional government, while others sewed the Hawaiian flag into quilts (Silva 2004). In 1897, over 21,000 Native Hawaiians signed a petition protesting the annexation of their land (Silva 2004).
While the reaction from Native Hawaiians was overwhelmingly against annexation, American society was less unified. Those in favor of annexation argued that it would be beneficial for trade and commerce and saw the islands as an important strategic location for military purposes (Miller 2025). Those against it claimed that annexation went against American values and were concerned that it would provide an easy pathway to citizenship for those living in Hawaii (Miller 2025).
The Spanish-American War & The Passing of Annexation
Although Native Hawaiians largely rejected the idea of annexation, the ongoing Spanish-American War bolstered arguments that Hawaii was a necessary strategic location. On July 7, 1898, U.S. Congress passed a joint resolution that officially annexed Hawaii (Miller 2025). To clarify, this was not a treaty and the Hawaiian people did not agree to annexation or receive any compensation. Hawaii was now a U.S. territory.
Native Hawaiian Response
Native Hawaiians did not stay silent in response to this violation of their sovereignty. Queen Lili’uokalani sent letters to Congress in protest, writing:
“I, Liliuokalani of Hawaii, named heir apparent on the 10th day of April, 1877, and proclaimed queen of the Hawaiian Islands on the 29th day of January, 1891, do hereby earnestly and respectfully protest against the assertion of ownership by the United States of America of the so-called Hawaiian Crown Lands accounting to about one million acres and which are my property, and I especially protest against such assertion of ownership as a taking of property without due process of law and without just or other compensation” (Lili‘uokalani 1898).
Many boycotted the ceremony where the American flag was raised over the Hawaiian royal palace (Silva 2004). Edward Kekoa published articles “denouncing the legitimacy” of annexation and encouraging readers to persist (Silva 2004, 161). The Hawaiian Patriotic League continued to protest, forming a new political party called the Independent Home Rule Party (Silva 2004).
What is happening today?
In 1993, President Bill Clinton signed the Hawaii Apology Resolution. This document apologizes for the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy but goes no further, and Hawaii remains a state of the U.S. to this day. While the opinions of Native Hawaiians are mixed, there is still a strong sovereignty movement that is fighting to return power to the hands of the Native Hawaiian people. In her 1993 speech on the anniversary of the overthrow, Haulani Kay Trask spoke out at a protest, chanting “We are not Americans. We will die as Hawaiians” (Trask 1993). More recently, in 2009, the Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009 was introduced to Congress and proposed the revival of a sovereign Native government in Hawaii. This bill would have implemented a similar system to the one used for Native Nations in the continental U.S., but it was never passed (U.S. Congress 2009). At a march in 2019, over 10,000 people protested the installation of a large telescope at Mauna Kea, the highest mountain in Hawaii (Hawaii News Now 2019). Through these acts of resistance, many Native Hawaiians continue to fight for the preservation of their land, culture, and sovereignty.
References
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2025. “History of Hawaii.” Accessed May 31, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/place/Hawaii-state/History.
Hawaii News Now. 2019. “Thousands Take Part in Aloha Unity March through Waikiki.” October 6, 2019. https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2019/10/01/aloha-aina-unity-march-set-this-weekend-waikiki/.
HawaiianVoice. 2013. “Attempted Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, 1893.” YouTube video, 5:20. January 14, 2013. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QmavRFmJG_U.
Lili‘uokalani, Queen. 1898. “Queen Lili‘uokalani to the House of Representatives of the United States.” Letter, December 19, 1898. From the National Archives. https://catalog.archives.gov/id/306653.
Miller, Bonnie M. 2025. “The Annexation of Hawaii.” Bill of Rights Institute. Accessed May 6, 2025. https://billofrightsinstitute.org/essays/the-annexation-of-hawaii.
Silva, Noenoe K. 2004. “The Antiannexation Struggle.” In Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism, 123–63. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11smzsz.8.
Trask, Haunani Kay. (1993) 2022. “Haunani Kay Trask Speech, Jan 17, 1993.” YouTube video, 17:57. July 4, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RwWNigoZ5ro.
U.S. Congress. 2009. Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009. S. 1101, 111th Cong., 2nd sess. Introduced in Senate May 7, 2009. https://www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/senate-bill/1011/text/is.
