Spring 2025
Transcript:
[Intro music]
Hello and welcome to Sovereignty and Slots, where we dive into the real stories behind things you might see every day but not really understand—like Indian casinos. Ever drive past one and wonder how it got there, or why it’s even legal?
Well, today we’re digging into that. This episode is about Indian gaming as a powerful expression of tribal sovereignty and economic self-determination. That’s a mouthful, but by the end, you’ll see how gaming—especially casino gaming—has become one of the most significant tools for Indigenous nations in the United States to support their communities, assert their sovereignty, and reshape their futures.
Segment 1: The Bingo That Changed Everything
In the late 1970s, the Seminole Tribe of Florida had been living in deep poverty for generations. Then, in 1979, they opened a high-stakes bingo hall on their reservation—even though Florida law said jackpots couldn’t exceed $100.
The state sued them. But here’s the twist—they won.
The Seminoles argued that because the bingo hall was on tribal land, the state didn’t have jurisdiction. That idea, tribal land equals tribal authority, was backed up by a landmark Supreme Court case in 1987: California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians. The Court ruled that if a state allowed any form of gaming, it couldn’t stop tribes from doing the same on their own land.
That case opened the floodgates. Tribes across the country began exploring gaming as a way to fund services and build economic independence.
Segment 2: IGRA and the Birth of Modern Indian Gaming
But not everyone was happy. State governments feared losing tax revenue. Some worried about crime, while others, especially private casino owners, just didn’t want tribal competition.
So in 1988, Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, or IGRA, a law designed to create a clear structure for tribal gaming while addressing federal and state concerns. But it wasn’t just about rules—it was also the product of intense Native organizing and negotiation.
IGRA created three classes of gaming:
- Class I: Traditional tribal games
- Class II: Bingo and similar games
- Class III: Casino-style games like blackjack and slot machines
To operate Class III games, tribes must negotiate compacts—formal agreements—with the state. The law also created the National Indian Gaming Commission to oversee operations.
While IGRA’s purpose was to promote tribal economic development and self-government, many tribes viewed it as a double-edged sword. It provided federal recognition and support—but it also meant ceding some control to state governments. As historian Laurie Arnold points out, IGRA emerged from years of organizing by tribal leaders who gathered in hotel rooms and community centers to strategize a legal framework that preserved as much sovereignty as possible.
Segment 3: Native Voices and Sovereignty in Action
Let’s bring in a Native voice from this fight.
James Hena, then governor of Tesuque Pueblo in New Mexico, spoke at the Congressional hearings that led to IGRA. He wasn’t subtle. He said:
“Let us get the record straight. The fear of organized crime was raised when the tribes first began bingo games several years ago. To this day, there is not any evidence of organized criminal activity in tribally controlled games.”
Hena made it clear: this wasn’t just about profit—it was about power. About the right of tribes to govern themselves, regulate their own economies, and resist the idea that their governments were temporary or incapable.
He reminded Congress:
“Pueblo governments pre-date the U.S. Government… We have been self-governing for more than 750 years.”
That legacy matters. IGRA didn’t create sovereignty. It tested it.
Segment 4: Success Stories—and Tensions
So what has gaming actually done for Native communities?
Let’s go back to the Seminoles. In 2006, they bought Hard Rock International—for $965 million. That’s not just business success. It’s transformation.
Gaming revenues have allowed tribes to fund healthcare, education, housing, and cultural preservation. The Cabazon Band of Mission Indians in California, the Mashantucket Pequots in Connecticut—whose Foxwoods casino was once the most profitable in the world—and the Mohegan Tribe, all used gaming to build powerful tribal economies.
But the story isn’t simple. States have sued to limit tribal gaming. Donald Trump—then a businessman—sued the federal government, claiming Indian casinos had an “unfair advantage.”
And even within Indian Country, not everyone agrees. Some fear environmental consequences, cultural loss, or unequal distribution of benefits. Still, many Native leaders say gaming is the only consistently successful tool for economic development that Indian Country has ever had.
Segment 5: Power in Unity
The passage of IGRA wasn’t just a reaction to court decisions. It was the product of years of intertribal organizing.
In the early 1980s, Native leaders formed coalitions like the National Indian Gaming Task Force and the National Indian Gaming Association—often meeting in hotel rooms they couldn’t afford—to push back against efforts to limit tribal control.
Historian Laurie Arnold calls this the “ground floor of a movement.” She explains that Indian gaming emerged not just as a legal or economic issue, but as a full expression of tribal sovereignty—a right rooted in centuries of self-governance, and reasserted through collective action.
Conclusion
So the next time you drive past an Indian casino, think about what it represents. It’s more than a place to gamble. It’s a symbol of survival, resistance, and strategy.
Indian gaming is not just about profits. It’s about people—using the tools available to them to reclaim what was taken, to assert what has always been theirs, and to build futures on their own terms.
[Outro music fades out completely]
Sources
Arnold, Laurie. “The Ground Floor of a Movement: The National Indian Gaming Association and the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act.” Western Historical Quarterly 48, no. 4 (2017): 345–365. https://doi.org/10.1093/whq/whx064.
Calloway, Colin G. First Peoples: A Documentary Survey of American Indian History. 6th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2021.
Hena, James. “Get the Record Straight.” In Say We Are Nations, edited by Daniel M. Cobb, 189–191. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015.
Indian Gaming Regulatory Act. U.S. Code, vol. 25, chap. 29 (1988). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2014-title25/html/USCODE-2014-title25-chap29.htm.
